GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF EKISTOBIOLOGY
Dinesh kumar Gupta
Department of Biochemistry and Home Sciences University of Allahabad- 211002
Received December 12, 1991 Accepted March 22 , 1992
ABSTRACT : CRITERIA TO DELIMIT human settlements and variables to optimise while developing any geographical locality into new human settlement are discussed Relevant Gandhian principles which will help man to develop appropriate type of relationships between the subsystem/elements of human settlements are outlined. The role of responsibilities and creativities of holistic man is stressed for the development of a more humanistic habitat.
Key words : Ekistobiology. sumbiosis. human settlement. concepts and principles
Ekistobiology is a word I coined for codisciplinary branch of life/biological sciences from the obvious Greek root "oikw" (to settle down ) and widely used term biology. here denotes/represents the structural and functonal dynamics of biotic moiety in nature. Ekistobiology is preferred in place of ekistics ( Doxiadis 1970 ) as human settlements are supraorganism (Gupta 1991 ) whose structural and functional dynamice can be analyzed and interpretated by using the German zoologist Bertalanffy (1957) during the end of second world war and was widely used by strategic and spece scientists as well as informatricians to transform the earth into global village. The inhabitants of global village are not only the psychogenicaly evolving population of man but also other communities having diverse population of organisms ocupying varied structural and functional michesdue to diverse range of social organizattion. Human due to its desire to create and satisgy needs had transformed the natural buffered,diversified ecosystem to man made ,fragile ,simple nooecosystem by a continum of anthroposere . The continuum of anthroposere in the form of physiographical activities had affected the environment of nooecosystem to such an extent that inhabitants of global village had inevitably conceived the idea of environmental awareness and equal human rights for fellow citizens . To transform the conceived environmental awareness into reality it is necessary to develop general principles and concepts that governs the structural and functional dynamics of human settlements.
Criteria for delimiting human settlements
From the holistic viewpoint an answer for the question i.e. what is human settlement ? is overdue since long. Can we designate a village, country,town, an industrial area of commercial town as human settlement or an agglomerate of any of the above should be designated as human settlement. Can we all unanimously accept thet any spatial organization of nature or man made existing in the form of village, country, town, cities, metropolis, industrial area, commercial town or their agglomerate can be designated as human settlement if that entity in the spatio-temporal framework of time and function satisfy the following criteria:
A) It should continouusly provide dwelling unit for diverse population of the inhabitants along with the shells and open spaces needed for productive, aesthetic, commercial and other psycho-communal needs.
B) It should act as a reception center for migrants equipped with a self regulatory mechanisms of norms, values and beliefs oriented of satisfy the psycho-social needs and legal mechanisms for most appropriate communal and organizational needs.
C) It should sustainably provide within its territory a wide range of educational, employment and other human resource development opportunities largely in marginal and small scale enterprises among with some medium and labour dominated and a few hightech and capital oriented enterprises.
D) It should have a continouously evolving self adjusting plan for providing accommodation to the population in close proximity to the sources of bread and butter.
E) It should continuously evolve a sustainable dynamic social, communal, institutional and commercial organization that will provide an essential social and organizational support at the time of crises, emergency and when critically needed by population.
F) It should encourage reward and respect individuals having innovative ideas and developing more efficient techniques and instruments than the existing ones.
Any transformed or natural entity satisfying the above criteria in the spatio-temporal framework of time and functions will have agglomerate of mosaic of shells existing in diverse state. The state of mosaic of shells depends on norms, values, beliefs and occupation of inhabitants legal and executive mechanisms established in that geographical location.
Dynamic nature of norms, and legal mechanisms
The interpretation of terms like norms, values, beliefs, legal mechanisms, psycho-communal, psycho-social will change from geographical locations to locations but their meaning should fit the natural sociole gopolitical domain of that territory. We Indian, in last 100 years had seen how our royalty for then rulers i.e. Britishers had dynamically affected our norms and value system along with our evolving legal mechanisms. In the social and communal organization we have seen the partition of population into two nation just on the basis of religion. In psycho-communal and psycho-social terms we have seen division of Indian community in different castes as well as in majority and minority classes. In context of the inhabitant of global village the terms like norms. values and legal mechanisms are slowly evolving to give equal rights to all individuals irrespective to the colour, caste or race to which he/she belongs. As far as legal mechanisms are concerned much emphasis is given to prosecute individuals on the basis of facts as evidenced by people or relevant government, private, social or public organization. As far as the form of government needed to evolve, respect, enforce, execute, and obey the established norms and value system as well as to safeguard the interest of individuals much emphasis is given to the democratically form of government elected on the basis of adult franchise i.e. one man one vote concept. These democratically elected representatives had encouraged focusing on immediate crises and accomplishes well the necessary, often rapid, actions within budgetary constrainst by means of short range planning. By means of short range planning much attention was given to improve the inhuman living condition so teeming masses either by revitalizing the existing human settlement wherever possible or developing the well planned new human settlement with a minumum side effect to nature and its self regulatory mechanisms.
To revitalize the abandoned or dilapidated settlements or to create new settlements, development activities planned with an optimum growth rate were implemented. In the initial stages for attaining the desired rate of growth and development, exploration and transformation of natural resources into economic resources on commercial basis was adopted as a modal system. This system in the initial terms reduced the misery and suffering of teeming masses all over the world . In long term due to imperfect visions and blink foresightness of planners, majority of people belonging to middle income group have emerged throughout the global village due to the widening of the range of people who have everything (rich) and those who does not have anything (poor).
Impact of middle Income group :
The emergence of middle income group people in majority in the sociolegopolitical domain of human settlement have strengthened the ideology and principles of environmentalism. In our everday action we are stressing much to conserve our habitat and form biosphere reserve to maintain the diverse population in wild habitat. In the domesticated habitat i.e.sanctuaries and parks much emphasis was given to maintain the diverse community and let the habitat regenerate according to the well observed principles of succession in biological communities. While for commercial exploitation different monocultures of organisms are maintained on different man made, synthetic and semisynthetic diets based on the diverse physiological requirements of concerned organisms. Yet the continuous neglect and unability of ekisticians scientists to frame out the broad/general principles of succession for human habitat had dilapidated the quality of life and standard of liveing of the masses all over the world. In order to improve the quality of life and standard of living of the masses while delimiting any settlement to revitalize and/or delimiting any geomorphological formation to develop new settlement we should optimise:
A) The availability of natural resources for commercial, domestic and other everyday needs and its impact on the way of living. commercial and economic activities of the population of inhabitants.
B) The biopsychic potential. biopsychic state along with the physiographical activity of the inhabitants and to what extent it will act as a major limiting factors for the successful establishment and positive evolution of institutions created for developing human resources, cultural, commercial, economic and educational activities along with the maintenance of healthier, civic, aesthetic and recreational facilities.
C) The available sustainable biological diversity constituting the food in that region and its impact on the biopsychic state of the population.
D) The active participation of individuals and the type of leadership developed by the inhabitants which will by the key factor for any growth and developmental activities.
E) The perceptions of the inhabitants, who by their creativity can affect the potlential implementation of plan both favorable and adversely.
F) The strategies to persuade innovative and creative mind possessing individuals to take active part in regenerative or establishments activities.
Unability of scientists to optimise these multivariate variables alnog with ever evolving brain functions exhibiting diverse nonlinear responses in the form of cultural and social practices as well as heritages of the past limited scientist to frame broad principles of succession of human habitat. Any holistic approach of research and development exploring the research methodology acquired by social scientists, educationists, psychologists, philosophers, historians, natural resource managers, pathologists, lofe scientists, computer scientists, informatrics, and system analysts integrated to achieve a single goal i.e. to provide a habitable shelter/dwelling unit to all, having the universally accepted minimum needs can outline not only the broad principles of succession in human habitat but will be of immense help to develop unanimously accepted unambiguous principles and concepts that govern the structural and functional dynamics of human settlements.
Analytical, reductionist approach backlashes:
The domination of reductionists approach to analyze the problems of human settlements by planners, architects, developers, social workers, educationists and social scientists have not contributed much to reduce the misery and suffering of the masses. Different plans and welfare schemes were simultaneously started by different agencies in same or different locality without given much attention to the root causes of the problem. Attention were concentrate to elevate the people from the illeffects of inhumane living conditions by developing the geomorphological spatial organization's rather than to develop the quality of available human resource, energy resources as well as the natural and manmade enviromental conditions. These approaches had constantly degraded the quality of our environment upto such extent that masses start feeling about the environmental crises.
Relevant Gandhian Principle's:
If this environmental crises is seen through the legosociohistorical perspective of
A) Minimize the use of depletive assets so as to preserve the valuable resources for posterity.
B) Promote a use pattern which is more natural so as to promote better health.
C) Enable the use of diffuse resource flow in nature to make it possible for man to escape the centralists control over life's basic requirements.
This can only be achieved if the existing social system accepts the principle of interspecies balance and the principle of an organic unity of the entire community in that habitat. Acceptance of the principle of interspecies balance would commit people to prevent the multiplication of human species, races and classes. This commitment would come from an understanding that in the alternative destruction of our's own species, race and class is inevitable. Acceptance of the principle that every individual and its creation is an organic unit of the settlement would mean a recognition that disintegration of any part or over expansion of any part is dangerous to the very existence of human settlement as a whole. In other words, starvation of anybody and overgrowth of anybody else are both threats to the very existence of social system in that settlements. These age old norms and values were superimposed by the commercial values in the pre- and post- independent era of
Ever increase in the number of dilapidated slum squatters in cities, towns and country side on one hand, and on the other hand in the name of development and growth, capital intensive commercial, residential, institutional and productive units were developed which have created new occupational niches for marginal and average income earners. Marginal and average income earning people acquired state, public and private lands and developed unauthorized colonies with a total neglect for necessary civic and public amenities. These three pronged strategy adopted by man to develop his habitat was due to the superimposition of psycho- genic evelution on the biotic evolution. This superimposition was in concordance with the well observed and appreciated phenomenon of nature's "that organisms continuously modify its habitat so as to increase its chance of survival ". In imitating natural phenomenon of interaction of organisms with its habitat he had significantly analyzed different habitat of diverse organism's and integrated useful adaptive mechanisms while developing dwelling, occupational, productive and residential unit in different natural habitats by means of socio-genic mechanisms of psycho-genic evolution. The elements of sociogenic mechanisms that guided the psychogenic evolution are the ability of creative individuals to acquire some level of competence to communicate and express itself among the member of community. The ability to communicate affects the preception of individuals or its group so as to achieve its conceived or desired level of aspiration. To achieve its targeted level he had explored and developed metaphor and sources of energy and physical devices in nature. During exploration and development he had discovered ecologic commodities which were scarcely available everywhere but were absolutely needed to satisfy its hunger, biological needs of clothing and shelters to maintain himself in a viable state. The availability of the commodities to satisfy its biological needs provided him an opportunity to use its brain to understand and analyse the basic phenomenon of nature that affects its everyday life. On understanding the basic structural and functional organization of nature he had developed different institutions to counter and annihilate the undesirable natural phenomenon affecting its peace and creativity by rationally choosing the easiest or cheapest means/modes to achieve desired benefit with minimum effort and lowest cost.
Choice of cheapest/easiest:
This choice of cheapest/easiest have inspired him to domesticate wild animals and to use them for tranporting goods as well as to ease its capability to cultivate land to grow cereals and pulses etc. Cultivation inspired him to abandoned nomadic way of living by settling down on the cradle of future human settlements. Here he had developed religious, educational, commercial and economic institutions with its own norms and value system based on his thoughts, beliefs, experiences and knowledge. For attaining the perceived norms and values he had sacrificed his generations and himself up to such an extent that he gained an absolute pseudomastery over the occupied geomorphological formations. After attaining pseudomastery he had started economic. institutional and commercial activities in its shells/demure (Fr) formed by its physiographical activities and thus created the nooecosystem in which:
a) The interaction between the elements change the condition of human settlements as it progress from present into future.
b) All time dependent process integrates and exerts cumulative (both negative and positive) effects after variable time/generation lag.
c) Deverse dynamic state of human habitat exist in the form of helmets, villages. towns,. countries, cities, metropolis etc.
d) The cascade/sequence of undesirable symptoms are not due to simple cause-effect relationships but the root cause lies in the very structure and interactions of elements interrelated in a complex way.
e) All actions, whether public or private, conscious or subconscious taken to annul the effect of undesirable symptoms occurs within the feed back loops structured in that state.
f) Type of feed back loop structured in any state of human habitat depends on the operational sociogenic mechanisms in that geographical locations.
overview :-
these characteristics will only be perceived by individuals following humanistic rhetoric. In humanistic rhetoric, responsibility is the key factor (Shapiro and Shapiro, 1979). The responsible individual or its group should be:
A) Familar with decision making paradigms of its settlements.
B) Capable of analysing one's environment for negative and positive influences.
C) Competent in assessing contingrencies so as to modify one's strength and weaknesses.
These complex behavioral skills of responsibilities (Thoresen and Mahoney, 1974) may made individuals and its group more competent to identify and potimise contingencies so he may be able tocoexist with nature. These action may remove self destructive impulse of commercialised-industrial man who had a desire to conquer nture and its society by producing all the goods he needed by synthesizing or processing easily available ecological commodities. Desire to conquer had contradicted our basic aspirtions to longer,healthier, more physically and psychically fulfilled life. Conflict between the desire and our basic aspiration had constantly deteriorated our environment, depleted the available finite nonrenewable resources and altered the structural and functional diversity of nat only of man but also of other organisms in their communities. Thus, by following the proposed concept and principles we can develop a generation of responsible indiv-iduals and its group who may optimise our activity by understanding counterintutive behaviour of social system (Forrester 1971) Optimization and imparting knowledgr that responsibility for one's life can extend so far and beyond that, let us learn a yielding and an acceptance that creativity is the product of interaction between the biopsychic potential of an individual with its environment and society. a creative individual can be rendered productive by providing adequate opportunities.
A productive individual due to its desire, creates networks to establish stable relationship with natural and man, made entity by maximizing his potential contact with natural and manmade entity with minimum efforts. It is this task of maximizing potential contact with minimum efforts that are to be achieved by accepting the proposed concept and principles while developing, any human settlement for our future generation or for ourself to provide a humane habitable habitat.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS THE SUPRAORGANISMS
Dinesh Kumar Gupta
Department of Biochemistry and
Received July 15, 1991, Accepted September 25,1991.
ABSTRACT: Inheritance of habitable environment for our future generation positive development of available human resource and optimization of the finite available matter and energy utilization can be rapidly achieved by organizing human settlement as supraorganisms. Human-settlement organized as SUPRAORGANISMS will exist as multivariate, multilooped , non- linear feedback, open concrete system.
Key words: Ekistobiology, eco-system. habitat, bio-system.
Continuing domestication of plants and animals. acquistion of diverse technological devices and physiographical activities had transformed the natural ecosystem to man-made ecosystem (Nooecosystem). The nooecosystem inhabited and dominated by man had acquired the form of human settlement. Table 1 illusustrates the probable list of elements, their state and subsystems of human settlements. The subsystems viz. nature,man,society,shells and networks were initially delimited as elements of human settlement (Doxiadis, 1970). The technological-human-legopolitical-economic-manmade complex, in dynamic framework of environment, process and time had given rise to multivariate, multilooped. non-linear, feedback open concrete system. The transformation of the natural manmade-technological complex into a dynamic system was due to the extablishment of the web of relationship between the interdigitating components. For analysing interpretating and planning the structural and functional dynamics of the complex system, there is an absolute need for a separate co-disciplinary branch of science. Doxiadis while postulating the principles of ekistics (the science of human settlements) expressed that "these principles and law are actually an extension of man's biological characteristics, and in this respect we are dealing with a biology of larger system" (Doxiadis,1970). Thus, its a right time to develop a separate branch of codisciplinary biological-science which may be coined as ekistobiology. For developing techniques, principles and concepts of ekistobiology there is a need of change in the preception of academician's, welfare scientists and planners that human settlements are not only the habitat of human, but in their own they are supraorganisms. In the present paper an attempt has been made to affect the perception of 21 st century numanity by interpretating human settlements as supraorganisms.
Perspective
Individuals/groups of individuals (wynne-Edwards, 1963), during the course of evolution in the spatio-temporal fame work of nature had transformed it, by exploiting the goods they needed for the establishment of social-system by mean of kin-ship and other relationships. Establishment of social system had changed the stratification and spatio-temporal organization of nature which the economic man had termed as growth and development. Growth is due to the addition of individuals/groups of individuals having certain norms and values in the form of families. On the other hand, development is achieved by mean of institutions established to regulate the activities of individuals so as to achieve its established norms and values by affecting/changing the biopsychic potential (the capacity of biotic moiety existing in the form of man) as well as the psychological state of individuals.
| | elements | State of elements | sub systems | system |
| 1. | Evolving system | (A) Ab origin (L)(the state of element which exists from the begining) | 1- Nature (the genetically evolving cybernatic system) | |
| 2. | Biopsychic state | |||
| 3. | Institutions | |||
| 4 | Buffered static structure | | | |
| 5. | Language | | | |
| 6. | Geomorphology | (B) Ab initio (L)( the state of element with which human settlement started) | 2. Man (the psycho-socially evolving unbuffered open syste | |
| 7. | Creativity | |||
| 8. | Ecologic commodities | |||
| 9. | Dwelling/Demure (Fr.) | |||
| 10. | Mode of expression and communication | | | Human settlement (multivariate, multilooped non-linear feed back open concrete system |
| 11. | Sources of energy and physical system | (C) Ad valorem (L) (the state of element with the inception of economic activities) | 3. society (multilooped nonlinear feed-back abstracted system) | |
| 12. | Sel concept | |||
| 13. | Perceptions of individuals/groups of individuals | |||
| 14. | Functional shells of man | | 4. Shells (the concrete technologically evolving static structrure) | |
| 15. | Transportation system | |||
| 16. | Biotic system | (D) Ad infinitum (L) (the state of elements due to the desire to create and satisfy needs of human wants) | 5. Net Work (the visible or invisible, technologically evolving simple dynamic system) | |
| 17. | Level of aspiration | |||
| 18. | Economic activity | |||
| 19. | Shelters of institutions | |||
| 20. | Meaphor for processing information |
Change of state was accompanied with inception of new activities like farming, teaching, learning, economic industrial etc. New activities had dynamically affected the mode of living by diversifying the occupational and functional niches of individuals/groups of individuals, by imitating the physiological division of labour, already well established in the entire biological spectrum ranging from absolescence biomacromolecules (Beutler, 1986) to the complicated open system existing in the from of organisms and their societies. It is this physiological division of labour which had provided opportunities to the ancestors of human to enter new eras of technologies synchronized with the organic evolution of central nervous system in the form of diverse behaviour. Behaviour were structured and systematized into and identified with the communities moral order and value hierarchy " which are partly interiorised and inherited as the conscience of the individual, and partly learnt, taught and transmitted as the external social heritage" (mukerjee, 1963) it is these unique behavioral features associated with the synchronous development of technologies for its needs that had changed the habitat of animal-bipes from arboreal to plain dweller, where after wandering all over the plains in the form of nomads he had settle on the fertile plains of river valleys, the cradle of human settlements.
The process of synthesis of human settlements
Human settlement were/are synthesized by the establishment of institutions/groups of institutions/groups of institutions, on every geographical location, having different but easily accessible geomorphological formations by aset of physiographical activities. Physiographical activities were/are dependent on norms and values of individuals/ group of individuals, which are inherited extra genetically from one generation to the other by means of traditions and cultures which constiture the psychogenic evolution of human. Psychogenic evolution associated with physiographical activities such as building of shells for shelters and optimum biological need of habitat, shelters for institutions of tranforming land for agricultural, industrial, econocmic and other aesthetic, need had constituted the socio-genic mechanism of pyscho-genic evolution which had superimposed on the biological evolution of human. Superimposition of evolutionary processes had changed the biopsychic state due to which the animal-bipes was able to establish diversified forms of settlement. These settlements were established to satisfy the biological needs of bipedial erect posture stereoscopic vision possessing animal bipes i.e. human. the dominatig species. This dominating species under the influences of psychogenic evolution had further diversified its occupational niches by accelerating the process of tranformation of natural ecosystems existing in different land forms by developing man-made ecosystems in the form of agglomerate of shells existing in the state of helmets, villages, towns, cities, metropolis and polis. Transformation of natural ecosystems to man-made ecosystems is guided by the law of economy which states that "a given benefit will be achieved at the lowest cost of thing yielding equal satisfaction, rationally implies the choice of the cheapest" (Mundell,1968). This law in the case of synthesis of human settlements was termed by Doxiadis, as "Principles of Ekistics" . it is these laws of economy and principles of ekistics that had given rise to economic man who is intensively engaged in the economic activities.
Similarities between human settlements and biotic system
Intensive economic activities have changed the psychological state of man by increasing its bio-psychic potential with an extensive adoption of new technologies. New technologies had dynamically changed the existing social systems from folk to urban type in majority of land forms. This change of state from folk to urban was associated with increase in number of families and institutions capable of growth and development. Growth and developmental activities had potentially affected the overall state of existing social system just as the deletion, addition or substitution of a carbon atom at any point in the three dimensional space of biomacromolecules or organic molecules are capable of affecting the existing physiochemical state. The change of state was associated with the diversity, in the form of occupational niches, technologies, heterogeneous families and other multivariate variables of urban social system just as different bonds, forces types and quantum of energy affect the function of biomacromolecules. The multivariate social system had affected the process of living by changing the lifestyle of individuals so that they can lead a harmonious and synchronous life with the newly formed environment just like any change in physiochemical properties is buffered by different homeostasis mechanisms of organisms. The changed life style of the people living in different forms of agglomerate was structured by a more aggressive and intimate relationship with its environment via exchange of matter and energy by means of diverse technologies just like the organisms do for their survival in any ecosystem by adopting it in the form of an open system. To coordinate the structure and function of the newly synthesized open system different programmes like operation flood, green revolution, recycling societies, development of waste land bio-technology, alternative resources of matter and energy etc. were planned just like organisms, who are capable of regulation and coordinating the activities of it different subsystems. by optimising the utilization of matter and energy of their immediate environmetn. These means of co-ordination have increased the number of settlement existing in developing and developed state just as the increase in number of organisms in a suitable environmental conditions due to the positive feed-back in reproductive system.
Dissimilarities between organisms and human settlements
Human settlement are delimited by means of arbitrary defined boundaries whose properties are controlled and regulated by different regulatory mechanisms such as taxes, subsidiaries, compensation so that every constituent may be able to achieve its optimum growth and development just as the real semipermeable differentially permeable boundaries are capable of growth and development upto an optimum limits by economically processing matter and energy under the influence of information present on complimentary macromolecules. The growth and development of human settlement is regulated by different socio-genic mechanisms of psychogenic evolution of man on contrary to organisms which maintain it by means of feedback subsystems of homeostasis mechanism controlled and influenced by the evolution of complimentary information possessing biomacromolecules, as well as different product biosynthesized by the organisms. These difference in evolutionary process of organism and human settlements had affected the field of interaction which is limited to the immediate environment of organisms on contrary to the human settlements, which had an extensive field of interactions dependent on the existing dynamic state of social system.
Overview
The extensive fields of interaction delimited by mean of arbitrary defined boundaries have increased the size of an open system which cannot be observed by the traditional experimental means due to the ' multiloop, non-linear feedback' nature of social system (Forrester, 1971) dominating the human settlements. Thus, in this era of compunication it may be possible to delimit human settlements as the mosaic of shells inhabitated by individuals/groups of individuals occupying diversified functional and occupational niches, by establishing stable relationships for an optimum period to time with different moieties in any well defined geographical location, by forming multivariate, multilooped non -linear feed back open concrete system. The uniqueness of this open concrete system is its capability to tranduce one from of energy to other form by decreasing the amount of useful energy (entropy), by degrading it, or by dissipating it in the form of heat , sound, radiations and pollution. It is this negentrophic development of human settlement under the influence of psychogenic evolution superimposing the organic evolution of organism that is unique between organisms and human settlement. These superimposing evolutionary mechanism have given rise to supraorganisms well organized in the spatiotemporal frame work of nature. Organization in the spatiotemporal framework is affected both by the physiographical activities of man as well as the elements of psychogenic evolution just as the DNA, while possessing all the information for the chemistry, may not have all the information for the various types of organization found in cells (Srivastava etal., 1988). it is this " non -DNA controlled organization " (Bhargava and Gambhisr, 1984 ) in a cell which is the prerequisite for its ability to perform several functions, including the minimal ones at an optimunm rate in an integrated manner that is carried on by the elements of psychogenic evolution of man in the human settlement by organizing it in the form of supraorganisms capable of continuing creating and controlling its boundaries by itself.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author wishes to express his gratitude to Prof. J.S. Rathor and Dr, M. Suhail for constant encouragement and special thanks to University Grants Commission for the award of Junior Research Fellowship.
CELL SURFACE ORGANIZATION
Dinesh Kumar Gupta
The macromolecular organization of cell surface in structural and functional terms is discussed and illustrated by adapting fluid mosaic model of functional biomembranes.
In order to precisely understand how the perimeter of a biological system is able to perform diverse range of functions, a preliminary knowledge of biomembranes is necessary. Etymologically membrane is derived from latin work membrana which literally means "that which covers the members of the body". In entire range of biological organization inhomogeneity is maintained in the form of organelle, cells, tissues, organs and organisms by means of obsolescence supramacromolecular organization of biomembranes. Conventionally biomembrane can be primarily categorized on the basis of spatial relationship. Although electron microscopy has revealed continuity among cytoplasmic membrances as well as continuity among cytoplasmic membrane and plasmamembrane but the geometric relationships, chemical composition, ultrastructural and physiological behaviour support the conventional categorization of biomembranes into three distinct types, viz., nuclear membrane, cytoplasmic membrane and plasma membranes.
FUNCTONS OF BIOMEMBRANE:
The inner and outer nuclear membrane separates the major information storage and basic control apparatus of the eukaryotic cells from energy producing, synthetic and packing apparatus.
Cytoplasmic membrane in the form of inner mitochondrial membrane couples energy yielding respiration with transmembrane proton gradient that produces ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are packages of hydrolytic and oxydative enzymes enclosed within the biomembrane probably to save the cells from the lethal hydrolytic and oxidative reactions and releases these enzymes in pulses when needed. The other cytoplasmic membrane i.e. the endoplasmic reticulum provide a three dimensional spatiotemporal strata for segregation and aggregation of functionally related intracellular components. Thus nuclear and cytoplasmic membranes form barriers to organelles, complexes of macromolecules and macromolecules.
The plasma membrane due to presence of vectorial nature of enzymes in its bilayer differentiate aqueous regions within cells, and between cytoplasmic and aqueous medium besides juxtapositioning the cytosolic components in a highly organized way. For example nucleus is kept close to endoplasmic reticulum which synthesizes specific proteins on instruction from the nucleus as well as maintain mitochondria close to energy requiring processes, while it produces net transport of solutes and solvents between extracellular compartments. Thus plasma, membrane in the form of perimeter maintains the optimin position of organelles in its cytosolic side while outside the cells it forms tissues, organs and thus compartmentalizes the organisms.
COMPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION:
There exists two major megacompartment in animals, mammals and human body and is made up of more than a thousand million cells organized in specific manners. These megacompartments are (I) extracellular compartments, and (II) intracellular compartments. The extracellular compartments were delimited into:- (a) vascular compartment, (b) interstetial compartment, and (c) lymphatic compartment. While the intracellular compartment as defined by cell biologists exists in the form ofucleus, (b) endoplasmic reticulum, (c) mitochondria, (d) lysosomes and (e) many other organelles.
CELL SURFACE:
Limiting boundary enclosing the elements of intracellular compartment forms the surface of the basic unit of life, i.e. the cell. The cell surface is constituted by topologically closed asymmetrically organized thermodynamically structured biomolecules forming hydrophobic domain in the form of supramacromolecular organization. This hydrophobic domain is the spatiotemporal entity, where diverse events take place. These events can occur simultaneously, concurrently and cyclically in the form of (a) insulation, (b) transport of nutrients and ions passively/actively so as to maintain the disequilibrium state, (c)recognition of hormones, growth factors, neurotransmitters, foreign compounds, immunogen and so on, (d)secretion of hormone, bile, milk etc. and (e) formation of cell to cell contact.
In fact, it is tthe above mentioned cell surface events that often underlie the very function that a particular cell performs in an organism by forming different organs. Table I illustrates some examples cells whose function is defined by the events at the cell surface. From the above table one can infer that the diverse range of events that occur at the cell surface are dependent on the types of functional molecules, especially proteins. Alterations of these functional molecules will affect the structural and functional integrity of cell by altering the feedback and feedforward ractions via fine and coarse
TABLE-1
EXAMPLE OF CELLS WHOSE FUNCTION IS DEFINED BY EVENTS AT THE CELL SURFACE
| Organ | Cell Type | Major Function | Surface Events | Molecules Involved |
| Brain and nervous | neuron | Conduction of electrical impulses | Alteration of permeability to K+ and Na- | The k- and Na- channels constituting proteins. |
| Endocrine gland (Piotuitary,thyroid,adrenal,pancreas and other glands) | Hormone secreting cell | Release of hormones | Transduction of altered blood composition into raised ca 2+ Within cells | Receptors of hormones, releasing metabolites,effectors and modulators involved in increasing the intracelluar Ca 2+ contents. |
| Gastrointestinal tract | Epithelial cell | Transfer of nutrients from gastrointestinal | Absorption of sugars, amino acids. triglycerides, vitamins, salts & water. | a) Components which increascs the cell surface by folding into microvilli b)Enzymes which hydrolyse disaccharides into monosaccharides, dipeptdes into amino acids. c) Vitamin B12, Fe 2+ and Ca 2+ binding proteins. d) Na-,K- ATPase which move Na-,CI-,water, sugars and amino acids from the epithelial cells of intestine to blood. |
| Respiratory tract | Epithelial cell | Movement of protective layer of mucus towards throat | Beating of cilia | All components of cell surface, which increased the surface area by folding into cillia. |
| Kidney | Epithelial cell of renal tubule | Reabsorption of nutrients from urine into blood stream | Absorption of sugars, amino acides, salts and water | a) Components which increases the cell surface by folding into microvilli. b) Na-, K- ATPase which move Na+,Cl-,water,sugar and amino acids from glomerular cells to blood. |
| Muscle | Muscle cell | Contraction and relaxation of muscle fibers to cause movement of limbs, heart valves intestine and so on. | Transduction of impulses from neurons into raised Na- or Ca2+ within cells | The receptors to which the neurotransmitters released by the neurons bind and there by open the channels of Na- and Ca 2+ |
| Blld,thymus,spllen and lymph nodes | Lymphocyte | Elimination foreign compounds, cells and organisms from body. | Recognition & attachemnt of foreign compounds,cells and organisms | The immunoglobul in and other proteins that recognize and bind to specific sites of foreign compounds, cells, organisms, immunogens. |
| Erythrocytes | | Transport of CO2,O2 and metabolite | Acquisition of deformed discoid shape by minimizing the surface area to volume ratin | 1. Hemoglobin 2.Network of cytoskeleton proteins 3. Metabolites viz,ATP 2,3-DPG and NAD/NADH. |
control of enzyme synthesis due to the prescence of abnormal or mutant functional genes. Besides varichemical characteristics of cell surface are induced by different environmental toxicants, dietary fatty acids and nuritional status of individuals . In hemaglobinopathies, the subtle interplay of genetic and environmental status induces alteration in erythrocyte cell surface. These alterations affect the kinetic parameters (like km. Vmax and cooperativity) of enzymes, affinity and number of peptide hormones, characteristic properties of different pumps which act as gates for influx/efflux of osmotically and physiologically active inorgaic ions, as well as the modulating capacities of modulator proteins (G-proteins, calmodulin) by the mechanisms of the variable and regulatable association and segregation of molecules within the structured milleu of the basic unit of cell surface.
DYNAMIC MODEL OF CELL SURFACE :
Singer and nicolson (1972) model of biomembrane or Pasternak (1985) model of cell surface illustrate the constitutional (rather static) aspects of cell surface 6-7. The ubiquitous presence of modulator proteins (Calmodulin(
Broadly, the cell surface is categorized into three main groups :(a) exrtacellular hydrophilic environment, (b) the lipophilic hydrophobic environment, and (c) the cytosolic hydrophilic environment Table 2 illustrates the main macromolecular constituents of the above mentioned three categories.
In brief the basic unit of cell surface is constituted by thermodynamically structured hydrophobic domain existing in the form of bilayer organization of asymmetrically organized phospholipids. The head group of these phospholipids (PL) constitutes the cytosolic and extracellular hydrophilic domain. The hydrophobic domain is stabilized by the two dimensional proteinous membranoskeleton present in the cytosolic side of essentially unattached cells like ervthrocytes, lymphocytes while in the case of cells that form tissues, membranoskeleton the three-dimensional cytoskeleton stabilize the bilayer of hydrophobic domain. In cells that constitute tisues and organs, the exrtacellular hydrophilic domain has peptidoglycan(collagen,fibronecting)which links one cell to its neighbours, besides possessing immunogenic domain present in both unattached and attached cells. The diversity of immunogenic domain is maintained by diverse molecular organizations, attachments of various carbohydrates moietics at the terminal ends of the extrinsic and intrinsic structural and functional proteins. In the cytosolic hydrophilic domain of cell surface different functional proteins accrete or interact with specific components of hydrophobic domain of cell surface or with membranoskeleton or cytoskeleton components. The
TABLE-2
| Extracellular hydrophilic environment | Head or hydrophilic region of phospholipids. Proteoglycan (dells constituting tissues) Varying tissue of cell specific immunogens. Receptors of different hormones, their antagonists and neurotransmitters. |
| Lipophilic hyprophobic environment | Fatty acid chains of phospholipids and steroids. Hydrophobic domain of different intrinsic functional protein.i.e. anion transporter, glucose or cation transporting protein etc. Transmembrane portion of receptors, modulator unit as well as well as catalytic unit. Intrinsic structural proteins. |
| Cytosolic hydrophilic environment | Head groups of phospholipids Extrinsic structural and functional proteins. Membranoskeleton and linker proteins cytoskeleton proteins. Accreted functional and structural proteins. Hydrophilic domain of transmemrane structural and functional proteins. Membrane derived mediators of hormones/neurotransmitters action. |
hydrophobic domain contains a diverse range of functional proteins among which a group of protein constitutes modulator sybsystem. The modulator subsystems have receptors of different biologicals (hormones their antagonists, neurotransmitters) in the extracellular hydrophilic domain, the modulators and effectors units in cytosolic hydrophilic/hydrophobic domain . The interactions of modulator and effector units with dydrophobic domain depend on the metabolic, strain, stress and other pathophysiological status of cells/individuals. Among receptor and effectors unit some enzymes are used by membranologists to ascertain the purity of membrane sample i.e., marker enzymes. The marker enzymes present in the extracellular hydrophilic domain are anchored within the hydrophobic domain via means of different glycosyl-phosphatidyl inositol (GPI) molecules which are sensitive to phospholipase-C(PLC) and on hydrolysis liberate marker enzymes in exofacial surface and mediators of biological action, like phosphatidic acid , diacylglycerol etc. in cytosolic side.
The organization of these diverse macromolecules as illustrated by the dynamic cell surface model elaborates more precisely and specifically how the cell surface is capable of carrying out a wide range of functions in the entire range of biological spectrum.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
Author express his thank to prof. J.S. Rathore and Prof. M. Suhail for constant encouragement and guidance as well as the University Grants Commission for providing J.R.F.
REFERENCES
1- W.Ferdimand: The enzyme molecule. pp. 289. John willey & sons. 1976
2- T.P.Kenakin. R.A. Bond and T.I.Bonner: pharmacological Review. 92:351.1992
3- P.Knox: Biologists, 30:159.1983
4- A.P.M. Lockwood: The membranes of animals cells. pp. 76 Edward Arnold. 1978.
5- M.G. Low and J. B. Finean: j. Biochem. 167:281.1977.
6- C.A Pastemak: interdisciplinary Science Reviews 10:42.1985
7- S.J, Singer and G.I. Nicolson: Science. 175:720.1972
Central Dogma of Ekistobiology
Dinesh Kumar Gupta
Shree Gupta institute, 903 Bai ka Bagicha, Jabalpur M.P. 482001
Proposed central dogma of ekistobiology is structrally similar to central dogma of molecular biology and psychology. Central dogma of ekistobiology of propose to characterize the dominant subsystem of human settlement i.e., man in terms of its creativity, desire to create and satisfy and physiographical activity. Ability of scientist to develop quantitative methodology for simulated relationships will help planners and developers of human settlement to provide more economic, sustained and natural living conditions to teeming masses of global village.
Introduction
Ekistobiology is a codisciplinary branch of life/biological sciences which willl basically deal with the development, analyswes, interpretation and planning the structural and functional dynamics of the abandoned, existing, diplapidated and new human settlements as human settlements are supraorganisms(1). Etymologically the prefix ekistics (the science of human settlements) is derived from the Greek word 'OIKW' (2) which means to settle down and the suffix biology is used here to denote/represent the analysis and interpretation of the structural and functional dynamics of biotic moieties. The human settlement is defined as an aggloomerate of mosaic of shells inhabited by individuals occupying diversified functional and occupational niches, by establishing stable relationship for an optimum period of time with different natural and man made moieties in any well defined geographical location by forming multivariate , multilooped, nonlinear feed-back open concrete system. The acquisition of the form of an open concrete system is due to the establishment of stable relationship between the sub-systems i.e. man, society, nature, shells and networks due to a specific spatiotemporal organization of its elements, figure-1 illustrates the interaction among the subsystems of human settlement based on the principles of ekistics (3) which govern the interrelationships of man and its society with its shells as well as the significant factors affecting the interactions of man and its society with its networks (2) Whole different philosophical, spritual and religious practices as well as books defined the type of relationship that man its society should establish with its nature, the cradle of habitats. Yet no concrete uniform principles/concepts are developed in which the interaction and role of man in its society is proposed for the existing dynamics legopolotical state of global village. Gupta (4) while outlineing the general principles and concept of ekistobiology have stressed the need for coexistance and recycling for the existing dynamic state of our habitat. This will provide a conceptual framework of interation of man with its society. In the present communication the element which can characterize the subsystem man are outlined. The element characterizing man are biopsychic state, creativity, self concept and level of aspiration affecting the personality of individuals/group of individuals and economic activities. The assessment of biopsychic potential (The capacity of biotic moiety existing in the form of man ) as well as the factors responsible for existing biopsychic state (the capacity of an individual due to the cumulative effect of interaction between biochemicals, biologicals, physical, sociological, psychological and environmental variable/effectors) of an individuals should become the frontier area or research of human biologists and environmental scientist at the global level. To initiate with the central dogma for psychology proposed by cook, 1988 (5) should be used as a conceptual frame work to develop a quantitative methodology.
Central Dogma of Psychology :
COLLOSAL EFFECT
Right hemisphere<= = = = = = = = = = = = = => Left hemisphere
PYRAMIDAL
TRACT EFFECT
Left hemisphere Organ of speech and favoured hand
Above dogma is based on the morphological anatomy and asymmetric functioning of the two roughly equivalent cerebral hemisphere not only in man but also in rat, bird mouse, cat, monkeys and gorilla as revealed by using virtually every available empirical measures such as biochemical, anatomical and behavioural, on the basis of lateralised specialisation of brain, individuals can be grouped as right hemisphere dominated and left hemisphere dominated individuals (6) It is observed that the vast majority of inhabitants of global village competent in externally oriented skilled motor activities possess the dominant left hemisphere . Functionally, Left hemisphere of the human brain is efficient in processing information on the basis of the detail of events as it is the home of logic, efficiency, vertical- thinking and consciousness linked state. Ability of left hemisphere to carry out above functions are due to its capability of handing and processing verbal, numerical, linear, sequential, analytical, logical, explict, concrete, imageless, time bound and memory bound (7)instincts of individuals/group of individuals. On contraty of left hemisphere dominated individuals, those person who play decessive and key role in certain kind of emotional, spatial and contextual information processing have a dominant right hemisphere. Functionally, right hemisphere of the human brain is involved in feeling and visuo-spatial relationship as it is the home of intution, inspiration and creativity. This is attributed to its capability of lateral, vertical and creative thinking in non-consciousness linked state. Ability of right hemisphere dominant individuals to handle and process non-verbal, visual, holistic, simultaneous, intuitive, emotional, diffuse symbolic, image space and nonmemory bound(7) instincts of individuals, institutions and social system have lead to the development of concepts and principles of system sciences generally known as general system theory.
Thus a cooperative team of system analysists having psychologists, educationists, human, resource ploanners, life scientists, anthropologists and social scientists should not only elaborate Cooks central dogma of psychology but should also develop suitable qualitative and quantitative methodology based on biochemical analysis of normal and abnormal individuals(affected) by different neurological disorders) as well as by analysing the widely used animal models of neurobiologists. Thus general acceptance of central dogma of psychology depends on the capability of scientists to decipher and characterize the factors which controls the biopsychic potential of individuals as well as those man made social and environmental variables which are responsible for the existing bio-psychic state of individuals/gorup of individuals. Developement of standard qualitative and terms of creativity of individuals as well as the desire to create and satisfy need and physiographical activities of individuals/group of individuals may help ekistobiologists to put foreward for web of interrelationships of the elements of human settlements.
Central Dogma of Ekistobiology:
POLITICO-SOCIO-
Creativity <= = = = = = = = = = = = => Desire to create and satisfy needs
CULTURAL EFFECTS
RELGO-LEGO-
Desire to create<= = = = = = = = = = = = = => Physiographical effects
And satisfy needs TECHNICAL EFFECTS
The central dogma of ekistobiology is based on the view that creative individuals/s is/are able to carry out a set of physiographical activity when he/she able to conceive and positively perceive the desire its society. An individuals is able to do this only when he attains a critical level of aspirations due to its existing biopsychic state. The norms values and beliefs are critical psychosocial factors which helps an individual to create or perform things which provides him satisfaction and also satisfy the needs of social system . A creative individual have a tendency to satisfy the needs of social system by means of politico-socio-cultural effects at the institutional level and religio-lego-technical effects at the executive levels. These provides an essential feedbacks which helps an individual to dedicate his life for those beliefs which individual to dedicate and devote his life those beliefs which provides him a sense of piece and tranquility of being a human.
The central dogma of ekistobiology consists a triad components, knowledge about which suffices for a general characterization of human settlements. The nuclear control center i.e. desire to create and satisfy need contains a functional dichotomy allowing for a balance between the long term stability of human settlements via creativity and short term responsiveness to man made and natural elements via physiographical activities. This sort of functional dichotomy at the nuclear center of central dogma of ekistobiology is proposed so that the human settlement should become an efficient and real spatiotemporal organization of economic and commercial value's dominated social system in the existing urban state of living. Yet the simple and not thoroughly analyzed state of rural and halmets living can be quantified by the set of principles guiding the actions, beliefs and desire of individuals having traditional socio-cultural norms and values. Thus by assessing creativity and why the individuals are not interested to create and satisfy the needs as their urban counterpart are doing as well as probable psychophobia for as similation and utilization of available technological means for intensifying their physiographical activities will be of immense importance for identifying the dominant variables controlling the existing state of rural and halmets living in human settlements. Knowledge of the dominant variables responsible for the spacified state of settlement may provides human settlement planners to achieve the conceived target by exploring the most economic planning policies. As different sociogenic mechanism guides/controls the psychogenic evolution of man and its habitat, differential approach to identify dominant variable controlling the state of (urban, rural, halmets) human settlements should be explored. This differential approach is somewhat similar of what we observe in biosystems. In all those biosystems were RNA contains the genetic information the progeny of biosystems are maintained by synthesiszing DNA, catalysed by RNA dependent DNA polymerase (8) The synthesized DNA(probiosystem) guide the transcriptional and transalational process according to the widely accepted central dogma of molecular biology which holds good for the entire range of biological organization.
Central Dogma of Molecular biology :
TRANSCRIPTIONAL EFFECT TRANSLATIONAL EFFECT
DNA = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >RNA-------------------------------->proteins
In the entire range of biological organization the genetic information present on linear complimentry information containing macromolecules ie. DNA is transcripted by the interaction of codon and anticodon. The codons on tempelate strand of DNA and anticodons on mRNA guides/control the interaction of DNA with m RNA and the type of aminoacid that is to be transferred from the cytoplasmic pool to ribosomal pool by tRNA. The tRNA translates the genetic information in the form of nucleotide sequence to amino acid sequence. The desired aminoacid sequence from the peptides in present of different proteineous factors involved in initiation, elongation and termination of peptide synthesis. This enzyme catalyzed peptide synthesis utilizes energy of ATP (conventional) and GTP(non conventional) hydrolysis to minimized the flaw of genetic information by forming diverse structural and functional proteins so as to maintain the dynamic state of biosystem of economic processing energy, matter and information. Potential capability of ekistobiologists to mimmick the biosystem to form a stable and much more economic sustainable and competent human settlements that exists in historical past or are existing at present is the task ahead.
Creativity is functionally similar to enzymes:
To achieve the desired task it is hypothesized the creativity and opportunities in human settlements is functionally similar to enzymes and substrates in biosystem. Knowledge and thought of individuals affects the available opportunities in human settlements in similar manner as coenzyme and cofactor affects the enzyme reactions. Desire to create and satisfy needs of individuals/group of individuals in human settlements is similar to that of intermediate enzyme-substrate complex formed during the enzymic reactions. The transformations of desire to create and satisfy needs to physiographical activities are affected both positively and negatively by different effectors (ecologic commodities, techniques, legal limitations, religious beliefs, financial status) or religo-lego-technical effects in similar manner as inhibitors and activators of enzymes afects in biosystems. The unique feature of the above reactions is the regeneration of crativity along with physiographical activity in similar manner as enzymes and products are generated in biosystems. The above mentioned similaritieses is illustrated by table 1. Acceptance of above analogy should inspire neurophysiologists, neuropsychologists, brain chemists, ethonologists, psychologists, and social scientists to develop rational principles to functionally classify creativity, knowledge and thoughts in similar manner as enzymes, eoenzymes and cofactors are classified by enzymologists. Acceptance of the above analogy and development of functional classification of creativity may help ekistobiologists touse the mathematical models used by enzymologists to characterize creativity and thus help them to develop quantitative methodology to elaborate/ decipher the interrelationship among the element of human settlements.
Conclusion
To elaborate/decipher the interrelationship. ekistobiologists should be inspired by life/biological scientists who have not only shown their capability to delimit the diverse range of enzymic mechanisms/bariable required for transcription and tranlation of genetic informations, the essential elements that minimze the flaw of genetic information i.e. ribozyme p (9) and the molecules(modulators, effectors, receptors and mediators) involved in transmutation of information across the cell membrane but have also discovered the basic principles and types of interactions that control these effects. Thus the potential capabilityof ekistobiologists to reveal the diverse range of biological, sociological, technological, psychological, legal and technical effectors of politioco-socio-cultural and religo-lego-technical effects and different interrelationship guiding the sociogenic mechanisms will decipher/elaborate the sequence of events among the subsystems and their elements in human settlements. To minimize the required time span to decipher and identify the elements/mechanisms of ekistobiology, experimental and field evaluation of Cook's central dogma of psychology should be intensified . Unanimous and universal acceptance of central dogma of psychology with standard qualitative/quanititative methodology is much more needed at present. Available standard techniques of psychology will help ekixtobiologists to quantify sequence of events along with the general principles for conceptual and mathematical medelling of human settlements existing in different state. Simulation of conceptual and mathmetical model to illustrate the multivariate, multilooped, non-linear feedback nature of open concrate system may not only guide the planners to reduce the misery and suffering of masses but may also provide biologists a potential methodology to precisely characterize the vital biological phenomenon at organismic levels.
References
1. Gipta D.K. (1991): Bioved,. 2.331.
2. Doxiadis C.A. (1968): Science. 162.326
3. Doxiadis C.A. (1970): Science. 180.393
4. Gipta D.K. (1992): Bioved,. 3.249.
5. Cook N.D. (1988): Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 13.201
6. Sperry R.W. (1982) Science. 217.1223
7. Vella F. (1989) :Biochemical Education 17.6
8. Baltimore D. (1970): Nature. 226.1209.
9. Altman S. (1984): Cell. 36.237
Acknowledgement
Author wishes to express his gratitude to Prof. J.S. Rathore and Prof. M. Suhail for constant encouragement.
TABLE 1
HARMONY IN BIOLOGY
| | EKISTOBIOLOGY | BIOCHEMISTRY |
| 1 | Creativity | Enzymes |
| 2 | Opportunities | Substrates |
| 3 | Physiographical activity | Product |
| 4 | Desire to create and satisfy need | Enzyme substrate complex |
| 5 | Knowledge | Coenzyme |
| 6 | Thoughts | Cofactor |
| 7 | Ecologic commodities, techniques, legal limitations, religious belief, financial status | Inhibitors and activators |
